Assignment mejor :- 13
College :- Maharanishree Nandkuvarba Mahila arts & commerce College
Name :- Gohil Niraliba virendrasinh
Year :- T.y B.A Sem - 5
Subject :- English
Papar Name :- Exploring Indian knowledge system : text traditions and Worldwides
Cradit :- 4
Professor Name :- Rachana ma'am
Class assignment
* Topic :- Vakrokti
- by kuntka
• theory of vakrokti
* About Kuntaka
Kuntaka was a famous Sanskrit literary critic and theorist. Founder of the Vakrokti school of poetics. Lived between 9th–10th century, after Anandavardhana and before Abhinavagupta.
° His main book:
Vakrokti-Jivita (“Life of Vakrokti”).
* Literal Meaning
Vakra = crooked, indirect, unique, special.
Ukti = speech, expression, utterance.
Vakrokti = a special or unique way of expression.
* Definition of vakrokti
Vakrokti is the essence of poetry.
°It means: - when ordinary words are spoken in a creative, imaginative, and artistic way, they become poetry.
Without Vakrokti, poetry would be just plain speech.
• History of vakrokti
1. Bhamaha (9th Century)
One of the first theorists to talk about Vakrokti. He included almost all Alankaras (figures of speech) under Vakrokti.
For him, Vakrokti = Soul of poetry.
Defined it as language that is different from daily conversation and gives pleasure to the reader.
2. Dandin (7th–8th Century)
Accepted both Swabhavokti (natural expression) and Vakrokti as Alankaras.
Believed:
Ordinary language + Alankara = Vakrokti.
Vakrokti makes poetry beautiful. Thought Śleṣa (pun, double meaning) is the main force behind Vakrokti.
3. Rudrata (9th Century)
Treated Vakrokti as only a play of words.
Example: Saying one thing but meaning another (wordplay).
Reduced Vakrokti to something small – just cleverness in speech. Introduced
the concept of Kaku (intonation, tone of voice) → how sound changes meaning.
4. Vamana (9th Century)
Considered Vakrokti as an Artha-Alankara (figure of meaning). For him, it was similar to a metaphor (Lakshana, hinted meaning). Thus, limited Vakrokti to just one form of expression, not a full theory
5. Kuntaka (10th–11th Century) – The Turning Point
Kuntaka gave Vakrokti a new life in his book Vakrokti-Jivita. He said Vakrokti is not just one Alankara, but the essence of all poetry. Poetry is ordinary language made extraordinary through Vakrokti. Classified six levels of Vakrokti (sound → composition).
Separated poetic language from ordinary speech.Declared: “Vakrokti is the very life (Jivita) of poetry.”
• Kuntka's view on poetry
Poetry = Shabda (word) + Artha (meaning) woven beautifully.
Vakrokti makes poetry different from daily speech. Good poetry must have unique expression that gives pleasure.
Vakrokti is the life (Jivita) of poetry.
• Kuntaka’s Idea of Sahitya (Literature)
Literature is when word and meaning unite beautifully without losing their own nature. No need for too many ornaments (Alankara) if word + meaning union is strong.
• Types of vakrokti
1. Varṇavinyāsa-vakratā – Phonetic obliqueness
Beauty created through sound patterns like alliteration, rhyme, repetition, or special arrangement of syllables.
2. Pada-pūrvārddha-vakratā – Lexical obliqueness
Special charm arising from choice of words, synonyms, epithets, or creative vocabulary.
3. Pada-parārddha-vakratā – Grammatical/Morphological obliqueness
Effect achieved through special use of case-endings, suffixes, compounds, or unusual grammatical forms.
4. Vākya-vakratā – Syntactic obliqueness
Beauty of expression through sentence structure, word order, and striking arrangements.
5. Prakaraṇa-vakratā – Contextual obliqueness
Skillful presentation of episodes, plot construction, or narrative arrangement that gives freshness.
6. Prabandha-vakratā – Compositional/Structural obliqueness
The highest form, seen in the overall design of a literary work — unity, coherence, and artistic organization of the whole text.
• style ( Marga/Riti ) and Guna
( Qualities )
According to Kuntaka, 'Sukumara Marga’ is an essential condition of Kavya. Beside Sukumara Marga, he talks about Bichitra Marga and he explains the characteristics in ten
Karikas. There are another Marga which is created by the characteristics of both the above said : Margas, and that is Ubhayatmak Marga. Kuntaka talks about four kinds of Guna. Those are Madhurya, Prasada, Lavanya and
Abhijatya. For example he took references from Kalidasa. Later he mentioned two more Guna, Auchitya and Soubhagya and these Gunas are common to all the above three margas.
• Guna ( Qualities )
• Importance of Vakrokti
° Shows the talent and creativity of the poet (Kavi-Koushala).
° Helps in reader’s enjoyment (Rasanubhuti).
° Balances both poet’s art and reader’s response.
° Became a complete theory of literary criticism in Sanskrit poetics.
• conclusion
Kuntaka’s Vakrokti theory concludes that the essence of poetry lies in oblique expression—a unique and creative style of presenting ideas. He shows that poetic beauty arises from freshness in words, meanings, and composition, making literature delightful. Thus, Vakrokti becomes the soul of poetry, emphasizing imagination and artistic expression over plain communication.
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* Home assignment
Topic :- Rasa Theory
- by Bharat muni
° Bharat (भरत) – In Sanskrit, Bharat means “to be maintained, to be cherished, or to be carried”.
° Muni (मुनि) – Means “sage, seer, or wise person”,
Bharat Muni was an ancient sage and scholar, best known as the author of the Nāṭyaśāstra, a foundational text of Indian performing arts. He is considered the father of Indian dramaturgy and theatre.
The Nāṭyaśāstra, written around 200 BCE–200 CE (though some scholars place it earlier), is an encyclopedic work that explains drama, dance, music, stagecraft, aesthetics, and the famous Rasa Theory, which describes how emotions in art evoke particular experiences in the audience.
• Introduction
Rasa Theory is a central concept in Indian aesthetics, first systematically presented by Bharata in his Natyashastra. The word “Rasa” literally means “essence” or “taste,” but in art, it refers to the aesthetic experience or emotional flavor that a spectator feels while watching a performance or reading literature. According
• Rasa sutra :-
"विभावानुभावव्यभिचारिसंयोगाद्रसनिष्पत्तिः"
* The Process of Rasa created
1. Vibhava (Determinants):
These are the causes that stimulate emotions in the play.
° Ālambana Vibhava:
The main person or object (e.g., the lover, a heroic character).
° Uddīpana Vibhava:
The environment that excites the emotion (e.g., moonlight, spring, music).
2. Anubhava (Consequents):
These are voluntary physical expressions such as smiling, crying, frowning, or gestures that indicate inner feelings.
3. Vyabhichari Bhava (Transitory Moods):
These are temporary emotions such as doubt, envy, shame, or fatigue that support and intensify the main emotion. They are 33 in number.
4. Sthayi Bhava (Permanent Emotions):
These are stable emotions like love, anger, grief, or valor. They are the foundation upon which Rasa is built.
5. Satvika Bhava:
These are involuntary physical reactions such as trembling, sweating, horripilation, tears, or fainting. They appear when emotion is intense and genuine.
• The Nine Rasa
* Face emotions
* Rasa with colours
Śṛṅgāra 💚 (Love),
Hāsya 💛 (Laughter),
Karuṇa 💙 (Compassion),
Raudra ❤️ (Anger),
Vīra. 🧡 (Heroism),
Bhayanak🖤 (Fear),
Bībhatsa 🤎 (Disgust),
Adbhuta 💜 (Wonder),
Śānta 🤍 (Peace)
1. Śṛṅgā
ra - amorous (love, Beauty )
Emotion (Bhava): Rati (love, attraction)
Description: This Rasa represents romantic love, beauty, and attraction. It is the most celebrated Rasa, often associated with the love between hero and heroine.
Examples in Literature/Drama: Romantic scenes in plays or poetry, like lovers meeting in a garden.
2. Hāsya - humorous (Laughter, Comedy)
Emotion (Bhava): Hāsa (laughter, joy)
Description: Hāsya Rasa evokes humor and amusement. It deals with jokes, playful teasing, and comical situations.
Examples: Comedic characters in plays, funny dialogues, or humorous incidents.
3. Raudra - furious (Fury, Anger)
Emotion (Bhava): Krodha (anger)
Description: This Rasa expresses rage, violence, and fury. It is used to portray battle scenes, revenge, or any situation of intense anger.
Examples: Warrior scenes in epics, angry dialogues, or conflicts.
4. Kāruṇya - pathetic (Compassion, Sorrow)
Emotion (Bhava): Shoka (sorrow, grief)
Description: Kāruṇya evokes feelings of pity, compassion, and sadness. It often appears when a character suffers loss or tragedy.
Examples: A hero’s death, separation of loved ones, or lamenting a misfortune.
5. Bībhatsa - repugnant (Disgust)
Emotion (Bhava): Jugupsa (disgust)
Description: This Rasa evokes feelings of revulsion, dislike, or disgust. Often used to depict ugly acts, moral corruption, or physical repulsion.
Examples: Scenes of filth, betrayal, or gruesome acts.
6. Bhayānaka - horrifi (Fear, Horror)
Emotion (Bhava): Bhaya (fear)
Description: Bhayānaka Rasa creates suspense, fear, or terror. It is prominent in tragic or dangerous situations.
Examples: Ghosts, war threats, or villainous schemes.
7. Vīra - valorous (Heroism, Courage)
Emotion (Bhava): Utsāha (courage, determination)
Description: Vīra represents bravery, courage, and heroic deeds. It highlights strength, valor, and moral triumph.
Examples: Warriors going into battle, heroic speeches, or acts of righteousness.
8. Adbhuta - wondrous (Wonder, Amazement)
Emotion (Bhava): Vismaya (wonder)
Description: Adbhuta Rasa evokes curiosity, amazement, or surprise. It’s often seen in magical, mysterious, or extraordinary events.
Examples: Miraculous acts, stunning natural phenomena, or discoveries.
9. Śānta (Peace, Tranquility)
Emotion (Bhava): Sama (calmness, serenity)
Description: Śānta Rasa by Abhinavagupta conveys spiritual peace, contentment, and detachment. It is considered the ultimate Rasa and is often connected to meditation and enlightenment.
Examples: Saints or sages in contemplation, inner serenity, or philosophical reflection.
• Subdivisions of Rasas
Each Rasa further has varieties. For example:
1. Śṛṅgāra:
° Sambhoga (union)
° Vipralambha (separation).
2. Hāsya:
°Gentle smile,
° laughter,
°ridicule,
°uproarious laughter, etc.
3. Karuṇa:
°Expressed mentally,
°verbally,
°physically.
4. Vīra:
°Heroism in charity,
° virtue, and war.
5.Bhayānaka:
°Real or imaginary fear.
6. Bībhatsa:
°Disgust by exciting objects or inflicting ones.
7. Adbhuta:
°Wonder caused by divine or joyful experiences.
• Later Commentators and Their Theories
1. Bhatta Lollata (Utpatti-vāda – Theory of Production):
Rasa is produced in the actor (Nata) when Sthayi Bhava combines with Vibhava, Anubhava, and Vyabhichari Bhava.
2. Sri Sankuka (Anumiti-vāda – Theory of Inference):
Rasa is not in the actor but inferred by the spectator from the performance.
3. Bhatta Nayaka (Bhukti-vāda – Theory of Enjoyment):
Rasa is not produced or inferred but relished (bhoga) by the audience. He introduced three functions of words:
°Abhida (denotation),
°Bhavana (generalization),
°Bhoga (aesthetic enjoyment).
4. Abhinavagupta (Abhivyakti-vāda – Theory of Manifestation):
The most influential view. Abhinavagupta argued that Rasa already exists in the spectator’s heart as latent impressions (Vasanas). The performance manifests these emotions in a universal form. Thus, Rasa is a process of manifestation (Abhivyakti) and leads to Rasananda, a bliss close to spiritual joy (Brahmananda).
• Conclusion
In conclusion, the Rasa theory of Bharata is not merely about emotions in drama but about the essence of art itself. By presenting Bhavas through the medium of performance, the artist awakens universalized emotions in the audience, leading to a deep sense of joy and fulfillment. Later commentators like Abhinavagupta refined the idea, making it a philosophical and spiritual concept that equates aesthetic enjoyment with the highest form of bliss.
Thus, the Rasa theory remains the cornerstone of Indian aesthetics, celebrated as a unique contribution to world literary and dramatic thought.
_________________________________________
* Essay
Topic :- Siddhartha
- by Hermann Hesse
• About the novel
Title: Siddhartha
Author: Hermann Hesse
Publication: 1922
Language: Originally German
Genre: Philosophical novel, spiritual literature
Siddhartha is a novel that explores the spiritual journey of self-discovery of a man named Siddhartha during the time of Gautama Buddha in ancient India. The book is widely regarded as a classic in world literature for its deep philosophical themes and reflection on life, enlightenment, and personal growth.
• About the author
 |
Born: July 2, 1877, in Calw, Germany
Died: August 9, 1962, Montagnola, Switzerland
Nationality: German-Swiss
Hermann Hesse was a German-Swiss writer, poet, and painter, best known for his novels exploring self-discovery, spirituality, and individuality. His most famous works include Siddhartha, Steppenwolf, and The Glass Bead Game. Hesse’s writings often focus on the conflict between society and personal freedom, the search for meaning, and the journey toward inner peace. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1946.
• characters
1. Siddhartha
Role: Protagonist
Description: Siddhartha is a young man from a Brahmin family who seeks spiritual enlightenment. Intelligent, curious, and introspective, he feels that traditional teachings are not enough to attain true wisdom.
Journey: He goes through three main stages:
1. Ascetic life with Samanas – renouncing material comforts to seek spiritual understanding.
2. Worldly life – indulging in wealth, pleasure, and love under the guidance of Kamala and Kamaswami.
3. Life by the river – achieving enlightenment by embracing the unity of life and learning from nature and experience.
2. Govinda
Role: Siddhartha’s childhood friend
Description: Loyal, devoted, and cautious, Govinda is deeply spiritual but more traditional in his approach.
Journey: He follows Siddhartha initially, then becomes a follower of Gotama (the Buddha). Eventually, he reunites with Siddhartha and realizes that true enlightenment cannot be taught—it must be experienced.
3. Gotama (The Buddha)
Role: Spiritual teacher
Description: The enlightened one, revered by many. He teaches the path to liberation from suffering.
Significance: Gotama represents the organized spiritual doctrine that Siddhartha respects but chooses not to follow blindly. Siddhartha realizes that personal experience is more important than teachings.
4. Kamala
Role: Courtesan and teacher of love
Description: A beautiful, intelligent woman who teaches Siddhartha about love, desire, and the material world.
Significance: Kamala represents the worldly pleasures Siddhartha explores. Through her, he learns about love, desire, and detachment. She later dies giving birth to Siddhartha’s son, leaving him a new challenge in life.
5. Kamaswami
Role: Wealthy merchant
Description: Businessman who teaches Siddhartha about trade, money, and the art of worldly success.
Significance: Kamaswami represents material knowledge and worldly life. Siddhartha learns how the world works but eventually feels it is empty and unsatisfying.
6. Siddhartha’s Son
Role: Siddhartha’s child with Kamala
Description: A young boy who is spoiled, rebellious, and distant.
Significance: He symbolizes attachment and the pain of love. Siddhartha struggles to guide him, realizing that personal experience and freedom are necessary for growth.
7. Vasudeva
Role: Ferryman and spiritual guide
Description: Wise, silent, and patient. He lives by the river and teaches Siddhartha to listen to the river’s wisdom.
Significance: Vasudeva represents the living embodiment of enlightenment through observation, experience, and harmony with nature. He becomes Siddhartha’s final guide to inner peace.
• summary
Siddhartha, written by Hermann Hesse, is a profound philosophical novel that explores the journey of self-discovery, enlightenment, and the search for inner peace. The story is set in ancient India and follows the life of Siddhartha, a young man born into a wealthy Brahmin family. Despite being raised in privilege and having access to knowledge, rituals, and spiritual teachings, Siddhartha feels a deep sense of dissatisfaction and yearns for a more profound understanding of life. He perceives that true wisdom cannot be fully attained through traditional teachings or external guidance alone. Driven by an inner restlessness, he decides to leave his family and the comfort of his home to seek enlightenment through a life of asceticism alongside the Samanas, wandering monks who practice self-denial and meditation.
During his time with the Samanas, Siddhartha subjects himself to extreme physical and mental discipline, learning to detach from worldly desires and endure suffering. However, he eventually realizes that extreme asceticism alone cannot lead to true understanding or inner peace. Recognizing the limitations of both ritualistic religion and ascetic practices, he departs from the Samanas, encountering Gautama Buddha (the Enlightened One). While Siddhartha deeply respects the Buddha and his teachings, he understands that enlightenment cannot simply be taught or inherited; it must be experienced personally. Siddhartha concludes that following doctrines, even those of the Buddha, will not satisfy his quest, and he chooses to continue his personal journey toward self-realization.
Siddhartha then ventures into the material world, where he explores worldly pleasures and experiences a life of indulgence. He meets Kamala, a courtesan, and learns about love, sensuality, and the complexities of human relationships. He also enters the life of commerce, accumulating wealth and engaging in trade. While these experiences provide Siddhartha with worldly knowledge, they also reveal the emptiness and transient nature of material success and sensual pleasure. Disillusioned by the superficiality of wealth and the emptiness of desire, Siddhartha abandons this lifestyle and retreats to a simpler existence near a river.
At the river, Siddhartha meets Vasudeva, a wise ferryman who becomes his spiritual guide. Through the rhythm of the river, Siddhartha learns to listen to the flow of life and discovers the unity of all existence. He comes to understand that life is a continuous process, where joy and suffering, love and loss, birth and death are intertwined. By observing the river, Siddhartha attains a profound realization: enlightenment is not a destination but a state of harmony with the eternal cycle of life. He finally attains inner peace, understanding that the essence of existence lies in embracing life in its totality, rather than renouncing or clinging to it.
Ultimately, Siddhartha is a story about the human journey toward self-knowledge and spiritual awakening. It emphasizes that wisdom cannot be given or taught but must be personally experienced and internalized. Through Siddhartha’s journey—from privilege to renunciation, indulgence to simplicity—Hesse conveys the timeless message that the path to enlightenment is deeply personal, and true understanding comes from living fully, observing life’s natural rhythms, and recognizing the interconnectedness of all things. The novel resonates as a meditation on the search for meaning, the balance between worldly life and spiritual aspiration, and the profound realization that the divine can be found within oneself.
• conclusion
Siddhartha is a profound exploration of the human quest for self-realization and spiritual enlightenment. Through his journey—from the disciplined life of asceticism, to indulgence in worldly pleasures, and finally to inner wisdom by the river—Siddhartha discovers that true knowledge cannot be taught or inherited; it must be experienced personally. The novel emphasizes that life’s meaning comes from living fully in the present, understanding the unity of all existence, and embracing both joy and suffering as essential parts of growth. Ultimately, Siddhartha’s story teaches that enlightenment is not a destination but a continuous journey of self-discovery and inner harmony.
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° Refrences
https://1drv.ms/p/c/F6FD56A54308A4E6/EUtiAni0z9FAkpCy7HpJYIEBGdjqfJKTjjACefqVfdXFvA?e=SYTXFJ
https://share.google/14WAH37we9LQ4Akai
https://share.google/images/tF0fdWtP4MHDJiu8H
https://share.google/images/ctwv4DwHWfFc7q674
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